Deliberately orchestrated disinformation uses a variety of sophisticated techniques to manipulate public perceptions and beliefs.

A hyperfake can be disseminated by fake accounts on alternative platforms to influence public opinion. A false report can be amplified by echo chambers and bots to appear more credible. A false quote can be incorporated into a meme to go viral. These strategies exploit the dynamics of social media to maximize their impact and artificially shape public debate.

This supplementary information presents the main methods of disinformation observed on social media.

Manipulation of visual content

Manipulation of photos and images 

Image manipulation is one of the most common and effective techniques for spreading misinformation. By altering photos or videos, malicious actors can create misleading representations of reality, thereby influencing public perceptions and beliefs.

Methods used

•  Image editing software: Usingtools such as Photoshop to modify specific elements of an image, adding or removing details to change the context or meaning.
•  Image collages: Assemblingdifferent images to create a new image that conveys a falsified message.
•  Filters and visual effects:Applying filters to alter colors, brightness, or other visual aspects, making the image more dramatic or believable.

Impact

Image manipulation can reinforce false narratives, amplify negative emotions, or create false evidence of non-existent events. 

Use of archive images 

Archival images, although real, are often taken out of their original context and presented as recent or directly related to current events. This technique aims to give the illusion that the images are topical or relevant, thereby misleading the public.

Methods used

•  Retiming: Presentingold images as if they had been taken recently.
•  Staging: Usingarchive footage to illustrate current events in an inappropriate manner.
•  Video editing: Incorporatingold images into modern videos to create a false temporal link.

Impact

The use of archive images can minimize or exaggerate the severity of current events, causing confusion and mistrust among users. It can also be exploited to create alternative narratives or conspiracy theories.

Satirical visual content presented as real facts 

Satire uses humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize or ridicule. However, when presented without context, it can be interpreted as real information, thereby contributing to misinformation.

Methods used

•  Satirical memes:Creation of humorous memes imitating real events.
•  Fake articles: Writingfictional news articles with a satirical tone.
•  Parody videos: Productionof videos mocking serious topics, which may be taken seriously by some users.

Impact

Misinterpreted satirical content can cause confusion, spread misinformation, and undermine the credibility of genuine news. It can also be used intentionally to destabilize or discredit legitimate news sources.

Deepfakes 

Deepfakes are fake videos or audio recordings created using artificial intelligence (AI), giving the impression that people have said or done something they never did. This technology makes it extremely difficult to detect falsifications, exploiting our instinctive trust in visual and audio media.

Methods used

•  Modification of existing videos: Replacinga person's face or voice with those of another individual to create misleading content.
•  Creation of entirely synthetic content: Generationof ultra-realistic images or videos that appear authentic but are entirely fabricated.
•  Voice imitation: Cloningvoices using algorithms to make a person say things they never said.

Impact

Deepfakes can be used to create falsified evidence, manipulate public opinion, discredit individuals, or disseminate sensitive information in a misleading manner. They pose a growing threat to security, privacy, and trust in digital media.

Identity theft and falsification

Identity theft 

Identity theft involves creating fake accounts that imitate real people or organizations to spread fraudulent messages. This technique takes advantage of the credibility associated with the stolen identity to disseminate misleading information.

Methods used

•  Creation of fake profiles: Useof stolen photos and personal information to create authentic accounts.
•  Imitation of voices and style: Reproductionof the tone and communication style of target individuals or organizations.
•  Coordinated dissemination: Useof multiple fake accounts to amplify the spread of fraudulent messages.

Impact

Identity theft can deceive users into believing that they are receiving information from reliable sources. This can lead to the spread of false information, damage the reputation of targeted individuals or organizations, and undermine trust in online communications.

Sockpuppets 

Sleeper accounts are digital accounts or identities created for the purpose of concealing the real identity of an individual or group. These fictitious profiles are often used to spread misinformation, influence online debates, or manipulate public opinion.

 Methods used

•  Creation of fake accounts: Useof artificially generated names and photos to simulate a credible identity.
•  Identity theft: Imitationof real individuals (journalists, experts, public figures) to lend credibility to misleading content.
•  Coordinated networks: Multiplefake accounts interacting with each other to give the illusion of broad support for an idea or consensus.

Impact

Fronts can be used to manipulate public opinion by creating a false impression of popularity or legitimacy for a piece of information. They are also used to harass or discredit individuals who oppose certain narratives, thereby contributing to increased polarization in public debate.

Bots and trolls 

Bots and trolls are automated or semi-automated accounts used to spread misinformation or influence public opinion. Bots can multiply similar messages on a large scale, while trolls interact in ways designed to provoke emotional reactions or sow discord.

Methods used

•  Automation of publications: Useof scripts to publish and share content in bulk.
•  Manipulated engagement: Interactingwith users to amplify certain messages or divert discussions.
•  Creating false consensus: Repeatingsimilar messages to give the impression of widespread support for an idea or opinion.

Impact

Bots and trolls can flood social media platforms with fake content/information, create an illusion of popularity or validity for certain information, and disrupt online discussions. They contribute to polarization, the rapid spread of misinformation, and the manipulation of public opinion.

Alteration of the context of information

Conspiracy theories 

Conspiracy theories offer alternative explanations for events or situations, often involving secret conspiracies orchestrated by powerful groups. They spread rapidly on social media, exploiting the human need to find simple explanations for complex events.

Methods used

•  Simplified narratives: Presentationof clear and appealing stories, oftenwithout solid evidence.
•  Call for skepticism: Encouragementto doubt traditional or official sources of information.
•  Creation of shadow characters: Identificationof groups or individuals as the main perpetrators of conspiracies.

Impact

Conspiracy theories can divide communities, sow confusion, and distract attention from the real issues. They fuel mistrust of institutions and the media, thereby undermining social cohesion.

Echo chambers 

Echo chambers are online communities where shared information reinforces members' existing beliefs, amplifying misinformation. These environments limit exposure to differing perspectives, creating an information bubble.

Methods used

•  Personalization algorithms: Algorithmsshow users content similar to their interests and beliefs.
•  Closed groups and communities: Creationof groups where only certain opinions are shared and valued.
•  Repetitive reinforcement:Repeated disseminationof the same messages to solidify members' beliefs.

Impact

Echo chambers reinforce biases and limit individuals' ability to consider alternative or contradictory information. They promote social polarization and make it more difficult to correct misinformation, as members are less receptive to evidence to the contrary.

Cherry-picking 

Selective bias involves choosing only data or facts that support a specific position, while ignoring or excluding contradictory information. This technique reinforces individuals' pre-existing beliefs and creates a distorted picture of reality.

 Methods used

•  Selective choice of data: Presentonly information that supports an argument.
•  Omission of counterarguments: Notmentioning facts that contradict the position being defended.
•  Highlighting exceptional cases: Usingrare examples to generalize a trend.

Impact

Biased selection can lead to erroneous conclusions, reinforce prejudices, and limit individuals' ability to adopt a balanced view of the facts. It undermines informed decision-making and objective understanding of the issues at stake.

Abbreviated and out-of-context quotations 

Taking statements out of their original context allows their meaning to be distorted and presented in a misleading light. This technique involves isolating quotes to make them appear as if they express a different intention than was originally intended.

Methods used

•  Selecting excerpts: Chooseonly specific parts of a statement.
•  Modification of context: Presentingquotations in a setting that changes their interpretation.
•  Combination of quotations: Assemblingquotations from different sources to create a coherent false discourse.

Impact

Quotes taken out of context can discredit individuals, manipulate public opinion, and spread misinformation. They damage the reputation of those involved and erode trust in public communications.

Creation and dissemination of false content

Spreading rumors 

Rumors are unverified or speculative information spread as established facts. On social media, they can spread quickly, amplifying misinformation and creating uncertainty.

Methods used

•  Viral sharing: Encouragingthe rapid sharing of information without verification.
•  Anonymity of sources: Useanonymous accounts to spread rumors without accountability.
•  Creating sensational narratives: Formulatingrumors in a way that captures attention and elicits strong emotions.

Impact

The spread of rumors can cause panic, damage the reputation of individuals or organizations, and influence social and economic behavior. It also complicates the task of authorities and the media in managing reliable information.

False quotation 

This enables the creation of false political statements, compromising videos, or fabricated testimonials, making it increasingly difficult to distinguish between truth and fiction. This can lead to crises of confidence, damage to reputations, and heightened social tensions.

Methods used

•  Creating quotes: Inventingstatements that never existed and attributing them to influential people.
•  Source modification: Attributingauthentic quotes to incorrect sources.
•  Rapid propagation: Usingsocial media to spread false quotes on a massive scale.

Impact

False quotes can damage individuals' reputations, influence political and social decisions, and cause confusion among the public. They also contribute to polarization and mistrust of authentic sources of information.

Memes with text on images 

Memes are often humorous images or videos accompanied by short texts. Although they are mainly used for entertainment, they can also convey misleading information or be used to spread false information.

Methods used

•  Humor and sarcasm: Usinghumor to make messages more appealing and viral.
•  Over-simplification: Condensingcomplex topics into short, simplified messages.
•  Symbolism and metaphors:Using symbolic images to represent ideas in a roundabout way.

Impact

Memes can make misinformation more accessible and viral, facilitating the rapid spread of false messages. Their visual and humorous nature can diminish users' critical thinking skills, making them more likely to believe and share false information.

False reports 

False reporting involves creating and disseminating information that is completely fabricated or seriously distorted, presented as real facts. This technique aims to deceive the public by providing credible false information.

Methods used

•  Complete fabrication: Inventingevents, figures, or facts that do not exist.
•  Source misappropriation:Altering authentic reports to include false information.
•  Professional presentation: Useformal formats and language to convey credibility.

Impact

Misleading reports can influence public opinion, divert attention from the real issues, and lead to actions based on incorrect information. They undermine trust in institutions and the media, exacerbating general mistrust.

Clickbait 

Clickbait uses catchy, sensationalist headlines designed to entice users to click on links, often accompanied by misleading or exaggerated content. This technique aims to increase traffic and engagement, sometimes at the expense of the accuracy of the information.

Methods used

•  Sensationalist headlines: Useof provocative or intriguing phrases to attract attention.
•  Broken promises:Headlines that promise important information but deliver disappointing or misleading content.
•  Exaggeration and distortion: Amplificationof facts or events to make them more dramatic or appealing.

Impact

Clickbait can lead to the spread of misinformation by encouraging users to consume and share unreliable content. It undermines the credibility of legitimate news sources and contributes to disinformation by promoting sensationalist rather than informative content.

Strategic amplification and dissemination

Alternative platforms (WhatsApp, Telegram, YouTube) 

Alternative platforms, such as WhatsApp, Telegram, or YouTube, are often less regulated than traditional media and can be used to spread misinformation in a more insidious way.

Methods used

•  Anonymity and pseudonymity: Creationof anonymous accounts to disseminate information without being easily traceable.
•  Channels: Usingchannels to share information with a limited audience.
•  Video and audio content:Dissemination of manipulated videos and audio recordings to reinforce the credibility of false information.

Impact

The use of alternative platforms allows for the rapid and targeted dissemination of disinformation, often bypassing the verification and regulatory mechanisms of traditional media. This complicates the detection and control of false information, increasing its potential impact.

Unreliable information sites 

Some websites specialize in regularly disseminating inaccurate, misleading, or biased information. They often adopt a professional appearance, which makes them more credible in the eyes of users.

Methods used

•  Professional design: Useof high-quality layouts and graphics to simulate legitimate news sites.
•  Sensationalist content: Publicationof catchy headlines and emotionally charged content to attract visitors.
•  Lack of fact-checking: Disseminationof information without rigorous verification of sources or facts.

Impact

Unreliable news sites can mislead users, leading them to believe false narratives. They contribute to the spread of misinformation and general confusion, making it more difficult for users to distinguish reliable information from false information.

• Automated distribution also involves the use of bots to flood social media networks.

• Coordinated behavior/coordinated networks of fake accounts also exploit the proliferation of sources to lend credibility to a lie/misleading content.

By Ekedi Kotto Maka